Biotechnology: Biotechnology refers to a range of engineering technologies which manipulate the biological material and organisms. 'Biotechnology', 'Genetic Engineering (GE)' and 'Genetic Modification (GM)' are all commonly used to refer to the artificial insertion of genes from one organism into another to generate a transgenic or Genetically Modified Organism (GMO). For example, the toxin-producing trait of a bacterium applied to a crop plant to deter pest attacks.

Expected benefits: The GE proponents claim that biotechnology offers the following benefits:

- It can increase crop yield by giving a larger grain head and shorter stem.

- It can control weed. Plants can be developed as tolerant to agricultural chemicals. The "Roundup Ready" soya of Monsanto is resistant to its own herbicide.

- It can be disease-resistant. Crops are developed with built-in resistance to major viral and other diseases.

- It requires low application of chemicals. Plants can be genetically engineered as having insect toxins to reduce the application of chemical pesticide.

- It develops tolerance to hostile environment. The GE crops may survive in hostile situations dominated by excessive salinity, alkalinity, or drought.

- It reduces soil erosion. The GE plants can resist root disease and reduce the need for frequent tillage causing soil erosion and water loss.

- It can produce more nutritious rice varieties such as "Golden Rice" which is engineered to contain beta-carotene convertible into Vitamin A.

GM crops and fishes

With these high hopes for benefits, the multinational companies (MNCs) are promoting genetic plants, crops, foods, fishes, animals, etc. The successes and failures are manifest in some of the examples presented below.

GM Soybean: The global soybean market is one of the big domains of the transnational corporations (TNCs) and their commercial networks spread across the world. The United States, Brazil and Argentina account for about 90 per cent of soybean exports. Brazil alone occupies 26.4 per cent of grain, 24.8 per cent of soybean meal and 16.2 per cent of soybean oil exported worldwide.

GM Cotton: The GM cotton technology is 'a package that includes the herbicide which the cotton is engineered to tolerate -- usually glyphosphate'. It is developed from the transplantation of the toxin-producing genes from the Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) insecticidal bacterium into cotton. It is grown commercially in Brazil, Argentina, Australia, China, South Africa and the USA. Its production is speeding up around the world with huge application of the most toxic pesticides ('synthetic chemicals') on the cotton crop. According to an estimate, this cotton was grown on 5.3 million hectares of land representing 16 per cent of the total cotton area cultivated worldwide by 2000.

GE Fish: The development of GE 'cold-tolerant' and 'disease-resistant' fish began in the early 1990s. Researchers transplanted the growth hormone genes from human or animal sources into several fish species such as salmon, carp, trout, medaka and tilapia. The transplantation of genes causes the fishes to grow several times faster than the natural ones. An article entitled Genetically Engineered Fish: Swimming Against the Tide of Reason by JV Aken (2000: Greenpeace International) reveals that the TNCs are applying this fish technology in Canada, China, Israel, New Zealand, Taiwan, Thailand, the UK and the USA. According to this article, millions of GE salmon and trout are swimming in thousands of fibreglass tanks in Canada. Many companies have taken a drive with grant from the US Department of Commerce to develop and 'commercialise GE fish that grow quicker, require less feed and are more disease-resistant'. A Cuban biologist has claimed that they have already produced 30 tonnes of growth-enhanced tilapia awaiting approval for commercial use in Cuba.

Genetic contamination: Risks and concerns

The 'gene revolution', however, entails 'genetic contamination' creating enormous economic, environmental and ecological risks and concerns. The GM seeds are more expensive than the conventional ones due to a 'technology fee' included in the price. The increased costs then 'outweigh herbicide production costs'. The production costs of GM soybeans are thus higher than those of the conventional soybeans. In 1998-99 GM soybeans cost 611.70 US$/ha in the USA, whereas conventional soybeans cost 373.80 US$/ha in Brazil (Pelaez and Schimidt, 2001 cited in Genetically Modified Soybeans: Blessing or Curse for Brazilian Agriculture? by Weid & Tardin. In: LEISA, Magazine for Low External Input and Sustainable Agriculture: December 2001). In addition to the economic concerns, scientists have warned that the intensive use of herbicides, as these are chemicals, have harmful effects on the bacteria living in the soil.

The British Advisory Committee on Novel Foods and Processes (ACNFP) informs that Bollgard (insect-protected) and Roundup Ready (herbicide tolerant) transgenic cottons contain the 'aad gene' which resists the 'streptomycin' and 'spectinomycin' antibiotics. The bacterium responsible for gonorrhoea, Neisseria gonorrhoea, acquires this 'aad gene' from the transgenic plant materials during the infection of the mouth, intestine and respiratory tract. Neisseria gonorrhoea can also acquire this gene from humans and animals already contaminated by transgenic plant materials. Resistant to penicillin, this bacterium is very dangerous during pregnancy. Dr. Elizabeth Bravo, a biologist from Accion Ecologia, Ecuador remarked, "Cotton is used in women's sanitary napkins and tampons, in babies' nappies, in bandages and other wound dressings." This is extremely dangerous, she warned and called for destroying all transgenic cotton crops and avoiding cotton and cottonseed. The UK government has given 'strongly worded advice' against the approval of Monsanto's transgenic cottonseed in February 1999. The European Union rejected Monsanto's application for the sale of the transgenic cottons in Europe.

The GE fish technology poses a great risk to the environment because these fishes can 'reproduce in the natural environment and readily crossbreed with their wild relatives'. Mating with the natural fish, it increases the risk of eliminating the healthy, wild populations, say the researchers at the Purdue University in the USA who discovered that even a small number of growth-enhanced GE fish could eradicate a large population of wild fish. In the 1960s, for instance, the Nile perch was introduced into Lake Victoria in Africa and, within a decade, the local population of over 400 different smaller fish species declined from 80 per cent to 2 per cent. About 50 per cent of the native species disappeared from the Lake because they were not able to cope with the new species with insatiable hunger. Similarly, the release of GE fish into a natural environment could load a heavy burden on the native fish populations. The release of GE fish into the natural environment, therefore, creates a global risk of increased feed for the enhanced growth of the GE fish. This could have a devastating effect on the natural environment and can lead to ecological disasters as well.

Seeking alternatives

Due to the costs and the detrimental effects on health and the environment, many small-scale farmers are seeking alternatives. Many have already resorted to organic crop production which relies on rotation, organic fertilisation and on non-synthetic chemical pest control methods. The production systems are site-specific and determined by local conditions. In Benin, for example, a palm oil tree residue is used as fertiliser. In Uganda, a species of black ant is used for pest control, and in Senegal, neem extract is used for pest control. Moreover, they grow other crops in their integrated systems and thus save their health, their animals and their environment. The country reports of the PAN UK which is currently involved with partners in research covering all the African organic cotton projects indicate that farmers choose to stay in the organic system with their knowledge and experiences building a credible alternative to conventional production increasingly dominated by GM crops (Myers, LEISA 2001).

Kitche Denis, a Mangassa farmer has been converted to organic farming. Using the chemicals for higher yields, Kitche fell sick, and later restored the organic method of farming with green fertiliser and natural pest management. This farmer said, "[The] natural sprays do not harm us. We are now in our fourth season of organic cotton production and yields are increasing year by year. My message to other farmers is that we should rely on ourselves instead of depending on others."

Conclusion

The biotech means of achieving quick, short-term and immediate benefits looks like generating long-term frustrations. The most fearful impact of gene revolution is genetic contamination. The European Commission has already expressed its concern about the tolerance level of GMO contamination of seeds. It has suggested the 'spatial and temporal limitations' of the GMOs in the areas where the conventional seeds of different plant species are produced. In this regard, Haslberger, in an article entitled GMO Contamination of Seeds, argues that even if the tolerance levels are established for seed production the flow of 'recombinant genes' may not stop gene reversal which will ultimately result in 'significant contamination of ecological systems and food production chains'. Before taking a stance, therefore, policymakers must beware of the biotech horrors being manufactured by the profit-driven TNCs.

Bayezid Dawla works at Institute for Development Policy Analysis and Advocacy (IDPAA), PROSHIKA.